Morphine

Morphine	Last updated: 11/09/2025
(Not known by any other names)

GENERAL INFORMATION

Description

A human and veterinary opiate type drug usually administered as the sulphate salt

Examples of veterinary uses

Mainly used to treat both acute and chronic severe pain.

Examples of species treated

Dogs; Cats; Horses; Primates

Approval status

VMR 2013/2033 approval status (GB/UK)

Not approved

EU Regulatory approval status

Not approved

Chemical structure

Isomerism

Morphine exhibits stereoisomerism, specifically chirality, due to the presence of five chiral centres in its complex polycyclic structure. These chiral centres give rise to multiple stereoisomers, but only one specific configuration, (−)-morphine, is biologically active and naturally occurring.

Chemical formula

C₁₇H₁₉NO₃

Canonical SMILES

CN1CCC23C4C1CC5=C2C(=C(C=C5)O)OC3C(C=C4)O

Isomeric SMILES

CN1CC[C@]23[C@@H]4[C@H]1CC5=C2C(=C(C=C5)O)O[C@H]3[C@H](C=C4)O

International Chemical Identifier key (InChIKey)

BQJCRHHNABKAKU-KBQPJGBKSA-N

International Chemical Identifier (InChI)

InChI=1S/C17H19NO3/c1-18-7-6-17-10-3-5-13(20)16(17)21-15-12(19)4-2-9(14(15)17)8-11(10)18/h2-5,10-11,13,16,19-20H,6-8H2,1H3/t10-,11+,13-,16-,17-/m0/s1

2D structure diagram/image available?

Yes

Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre diagrams

Common Name	Relationship	Link
morphine	-

General status

Veterinary substance type

Medicinal drug: narcotic, analgesic

Substance groups

Morphinan

Minimum active substance purity

Known relevant impurities

Substance origin

Natural

Mode of action

Morphine acts on a specific receptor of nerve cells.

Molecular targets

[Mu-type opioid receptor, Agonist], [Kappa-type opioid receptor, Agonist], [Delta-type opioid receptor, Agonist]

CAS RN

57-27-2

EC number

200-320-2

CIPAC number

US EPA chemical code

PubChem CID

Therapeutic Class

Natural opium alkaloids

ATCvet Code

QN02AA01

Controlled Drug?

EU: UN61/72, Class I; USA: DEA Schedule II controlled substance

Regulation 37/2010 MRL Classification

Molecular mass

285.34

PIN (Preferred Identification Name)

(5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol

IUPAC name

(5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol

CAS name

(5R,6S,9R,13S,14R)-4,5-epoxy-N-methyl-7-morphinen-3,6-diol

Forever chemical

Other status information

Relevant Environmental Water Quality Standards

Physical state

White crystalline, odourless solid

Commercial

Property

Value

Availability status

Current

Introduction & key dates

1800s, first synthesised; Early 1900s, first use with large animals

Example manufacturers & suppliers of products using this active now or historically

Macfarlan Smith Limited
EUROAPI
Sanofi France

Example products using this active

Veranova Morphine
Sanofi Morphine

Formulation and application details

Usually supplied as morphine sulphate solution for injection, sometimes used off-label

Commercial production

Morphine is primarily produced through natural extraction from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), a process that begins with harvesting the latex sap from unripe seed pods. This raw opium contains several alkaloids, with morphine being the most abundant. The opium is then dried and processed, typically using acid-base extraction techniques to isolate morphine from other alkaloids like codeine and thebaine. In parallel, synthetic and semi-synthetic methods have been developed, including total synthesis routes like the Gates synthesis and Rice’s biomimetic pathway, though these are mainly used for research due to their complexity and low yield.

Impact on climate of production and use

Published GHG data is not available for most pharmaceuticals. However, according to industry, global averages suggest producing 1 kg of a typical active pharmaceutical ingredient can range from 10 to 100 kg CO₂e for small molecule drugs and potentially up to 1000 kg CO₂e for complex biologicals such as vaccines, depending on the drug type, its formulation, complexity of synthesis, solvent recovery, and energy sources used.

ENVIRONMENTAL FATE

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Solubility - In water at 20 °C (mg l⁻¹)

149

Moderate

Solubility - In organic solvents at 20 °C (mg l⁻¹)

Melting point (°C)

190

Sublimes

Boiling point (°C)

Degradation point (°C)

250

Flashpoint (°C)

Octanol-water partition coefficient at pH 7, 20 °C

7.76 X 10⁰⁰

Calculated

Log P

0.89

Low

Fat solubility of residues

Solubility

Data type

Density (g ml⁻¹)

1.32

Dissociation constant pKa) at 25 °C

8.21

Vapour pressure at 20 °C (mPa)

Henry's law constant at 25 °C (Pa m³ mol⁻¹)

Volatilisation as max % of applied dose lost

From plant surface

From soil surface

Maximum UV-vis absorption L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹

Acid: max @ 285nm
Alkali: max @ 298nm

Surface tension (mN m⁻¹)

Refractive Index

Environmental release

Degradation

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Soil degradation (days) (aerobic)

DT₅₀ (typical)

DT₅₀ (lab at 20 °C)

DT₅₀ (field)

DT₉₀ (lab at 20 °C)

DT₉₀ (field)

Note

Manure DT₅₀ (days)

Aqueous photolysis DT₅₀ (days) at pH 7

Value

Note

Aqueous hydrolysis DT₅₀ (days) at 20 °C and pH 7

Value

Note

Water-sediment DT₅₀ (days)

Water phase only DT₅₀ (days)

Sediment phase only DT₅₀ (days)

Air degradation

As this parameter is not normally measured directly, a surrogate measure is used: ‘Photochemical oxidative DT₅₀’. Where data is available, this can be found in the Fate Indices section below.

Decay in stored produce DT₅₀

Soil adsorption and mobility

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Linear

K_d (mL g⁻¹)

K_oc (mL g⁻¹)

Notes and range

Freundlich

K_f (mL g⁻¹)

K_foc (mL g⁻¹)

¹/_n

Notes and range

pH sensitivity

Fate indices

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

GUS leaching potential index

Bio-concentration factor

BCF (l kg⁻¹)

CT₅₀ (days)

Known metabolites

None

ECOTOXICOLOGY

Terrestrial ecotoxicology

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)

461

Rat

Moderate

Mammals - Short term dietary NOEL

(mg kg⁻¹)

(ppm diet)

Mammals - Chronic 21d NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)

Birds - Acute LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)

Birds - Short term dietary (LC₅₀/LD₅₀)

Birds - Chronic 21d NOEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)

Earthworms - Acute 14 day LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)

Earthworms - Chronic NOEC, reproduction (mg kg⁻¹)

Soil micro-organisms

Collembola

Acute LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)

Chronic NOEC (mg kg⁻¹)

Non-target plants

Vegetative vigour ER₅₀ (g ha⁻¹)

Seedling emergence ER₅₀ (g ha⁻¹)

Honeybees (Apis spp.)

Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Unknown mode acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Chronic

Notes

Bumblebees (Bombus spp.)

Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Mason bees (Osmia spp.)

Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)

Other bee species (1)

Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)

Mode of exposure

Other bee species (2)

Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)

Mode of exposure

Beneficial insects (Ladybirds)

Beneficial insects (Lacewings)

Beneficial insects (Parasitic wasps)

Beneficial insects (Predatory mites)

Beneficial insects (Ground beetles)

Aquatic ecotoxicology

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Temperate Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Temperate Freshwater Fish - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)

1.0

Danio rerio 14 day

Moderate

Tropical Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)

Tropical Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Aquatic crustaceans - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Sediment dwelling organisms - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, static, water (mg l⁻¹)

Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, sediment (mg kg⁻¹)

Aquatic Plants (free-floating, fonds growth, fresh) - 7 day (mg l⁻¹)

Aquatic plants (rooted, growth rate, fresh) - 14 day (mg l⁻¹)

Algae - Acute (growth rate, fresh; mg l⁻¹)

Algae - Chronic (growth rate, fresh; mg l⁻¹)

Mesocosm study data

NOEAEC mg l⁻¹

Marine bivalves

HUMAN HEALTH AND PROTECTION

General

Property

Value

Source; quality score; and other information

Interpretation

Threshold of Toxicological Concern (Cramer Class)

Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)

461

Rat

Moderate

Mammals - Dermal LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹ body weight)

Mammals - Inhalation LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)

Other Mammal toxicity endpoints

Intraperitoneal LD₅₀ = 100 mg kg⁻¹

Rat

Intravenous LD₅₀ = 140 mg kg⁻¹

Rat

ADI - Acceptable Daily Intake (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)

ARfD - Acute Reference Dose (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)

AAOEL - Acute Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)

AOEL - Acceptable Operator Exposure Level - Systemic (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)

Dermal penetration studies (%)

Dangerous Substances Directive 76/464

Exposure Routes

Public

Occupational

Mammalian dose elimination route and rate

Hepatic metabolism

Health issues

Specific human health issues

Carcinogen

Genotoxic

Endocrine disruptor

; ; ; ;

Reproduction / development effects

Acetyl cholinesterase inhibitor

Neurotoxicant

No data found

Respiratory tract irritant

Skin irritant

Skin sensitiser

Eye irritant

Phototoxicant

No data found

General human health issues

CNS toxicant
May cause low blood pressure, drowsiness, vomiting and constipation
May be fatal if swallowed in high doses

Handling issues

Property

Value and interpretation

General

Will emits toxic fumes of nitrogen oxide when heated to decomposition
Dust may form explosive mixture with air
Incompatible with alkalies, lead acetate, chlorides, strong oxidising agents, ferric salts & iodides

CLP classification 2013

WHO Classification

Not listed (Not listed)

UN Number

Waste disposal & packaging

Shelf-life, storage, stability and reactivity

TRANSLATIONS

Language

Name

English

morphine

French

German

Morphin

Danish

Italian

morfina

Spanish

morphin

Greek

Polish

Swedish

Hungarian

Dutch

Norwegian

Record last updated:	11/09/2025
Contact:	aeru@herts.ac.uk
Please cite as:	Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D. and Green, A. (2016) An international database for pesticide risk assessments and management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(4), 1050-1064. DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2015.1133242