Effects

Item Top-down Bottom-up
Accurate application of irrigation water Top-down Bottom-up
Accurate application of nutrients to arable crops Top-down Bottom-up
Accurate application of nutrients to grassland Top-down Bottom-up
Accurate application of pesticides on food crops Top-down Bottom-up
Accurate application of pesticides on non-food crops (incl grass and forage) Top-down Bottom-up
Add value to produce Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid direct application of nitrogen fertiliser into water bodies Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid fungal spores being carried over between seasons Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid humid conditions in crops condusive to mycotoxin production Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid losses of nutrients from the storage of fertiliser Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid losses of nutrients from the storage of manure Top-down Bottom-up
Avoid substances with a high BOD entering watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Bedding materials for pigs are not contaminated with salmonella Top-down Bottom-up
Bedding/litter materials for poultry are not contaminated with salmonella Top-down Bottom-up
Break the cycle of reinfection on pig farms Top-down Bottom-up
Break the cycle of reinfection on poultry farms Top-down Bottom-up
Concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are kept below maximum permissible limits on arable soils Top-down Bottom-up
Concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are kept below maximum permissible limits on grassland/forage soils Top-down Bottom-up
Control rodents Top-down Bottom-up
Create a distance barrier between fertiliser application areas and surrounding environment Top-down Bottom-up
Create a distance barrier between sprayed areas and surrounding environment Top-down Bottom-up
Create a physical barrier between sprayed areas and surrounding environment Top-down Bottom-up
Crop is not temperature limited Top-down Bottom-up
Crop is not water limited Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease denitrification Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease farm costs Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease labour costs Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease surface area of slurry that has been applied to land Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease surface run-off / increase infiltration Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease the amount of nitrogen excreted by poultry Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease the pH of slurry Top-down Bottom-up
Decrease the rapid transfer of pesticides into drainage systems Top-down Bottom-up
Deep soil disturbance is avoided Top-down Bottom-up
Discourage pests/animals that can carry disease (such as rodents, wild birds, cats, dogs, foxes and insects) around pig units Top-down Bottom-up
Discourage pests/animals that can carry disease (such as rodents, wild birds, cats, dogs, foxes and insects) around poultry farms Top-down Bottom-up
Eliminate growth promotors (hormones) from food Top-down Bottom-up
Eliminate/control salmonella in pigs Top-down Bottom-up
Eliminate/control salmonella in poultry Top-down Bottom-up
Employment is freely chosen Top-down Bottom-up
Encourage a diversity of sward structure and species in grassland Top-down Bottom-up
Encourage beneficial insects Top-down Bottom-up
Encourage rare arable plants Top-down Bottom-up
Ensure crops are pollinated Top-down Bottom-up
Farm workers exposure to harmful materials, pathogens, vibrations and noise is minimised to safe levels Top-down Bottom-up
Field boundary trees are protected and maintained Top-down N/A
Fuel spillages are contained Top-down Bottom-up
Grain is rapidly cooled to below 15C (and kept below 5C during winter) Top-down N/A
Grain is rapidly dried to below 18% moisture content (15% for long-term storage) Top-down Bottom-up
Habitats are not damaged by cultivation Top-down Bottom-up
Health risks to farm workers are minimised Top-down Bottom-up
Hedgerows are protected and enhanced Top-down Bottom-up
Higher emissions of nitrous oxide Top-down Bottom-up
Highways adjacent to fields are more safe Top-down Bottom-up
Improve arable crop establishment Top-down Bottom-up
Improve arable crop nutrition Top-down Bottom-up
Improve cereal grain quality Top-down Bottom-up
Improve crop development Top-down Bottom-up
Improve grassland nutrition N/A N/A
Improve groundwater quality - chemical N/A N/A
Improve soil structure on arable land Top-down Bottom-up
Improve soil structure on grassland Top-down Bottom-up
Improve soil trafficability N/A Bottom-up
Improve soil workability N/A Bottom-up
Improve surface water quality - chemical N/A N/A
Improved spawning grounds for fish Top-down Bottom-up
Increase droplet size of spray Top-down Bottom-up
Increase farm income Top-down Bottom-up
Increase farm labour Top-down Bottom-up
Increase habitats for hares Top-down Bottom-up
Increase habitats for invertebrates Top-down Bottom-up
Increase habitats for mammals Top-down Bottom-up
Increase in earthworm population Top-down Bottom-up
Increase in non-target arthropod population Top-down Bottom-up
Increase in soil microflora population Top-down Bottom-up
Increase infiltration of slurry into the soil Top-down Bottom-up
Increase nesting habitats for birds Top-down Bottom-up
Increase nitrogen immobilisation Top-down Bottom-up
Increase pollen and nectar sources Top-down Bottom-up
Increase recapture of ammonia Top-down Bottom-up
Increase seed food sources for birds on arable farms Top-down Bottom-up
Increase seed food sources for birds on grassland farms Top-down Bottom-up
Increase soil organic matter on arable land Top-down Bottom-up
Increase soil organic matter on grassland Top-down N/A
Increase summer food sources for birds Top-down Bottom-up
Increase the amount of ammonium-N that is bound to soil particles Top-down Bottom-up
Increase the degree of contact between the slurry applied and the soil Top-down Bottom-up
Increase vegetative uptake of nutrients by arable crops Top-down Bottom-up
Increase vegetative uptake of nutrients by grassland Top-down Bottom-up
Increase winter food sources for birds Top-down Bottom-up
Increase/maintain tourists/visitors to the area Top-down Bottom-up
In-field ponds are protected and maintained Top-down N/A
Injuries to farm workers are minimised Top-down Bottom-up
Injuries to farm workers are rapidly treated Top-down Bottom-up
Keep ammonia in solution within slurry Top-down Bottom-up
Keep poultry litter/manure dry Top-down Bottom-up
Keep salmonella out of pig farms Top-down Bottom-up
Keep salmonella out of poultry farms Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock a provided with an appropriate environment Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock are handled sympathetically Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock avoid mental suffering Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock can freely access fresh water as required Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock feed is free from harmful contaminants Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock have access to a healthy diet Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock housing meets behavioural needs Top-down Bottom-up
Livestock products are fully traceable to their source Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of ammonia Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of ammonia from fertilisers Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of ammonia from poultry housing Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of ammonia from slurry spreading Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of ammonia from slurry stores Top-down Bottom-up
Lower emissions of methane from manure Top-down Bottom-up
Lower exposure of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) to aquatic fauna Top-down Bottom-up
Lower exposure of pesticides that are toxic to aquatic fauna and flora Top-down Bottom-up
Lower exposure of pesticides that are toxic to birds Top-down Bottom-up
Lower exposure of pesticides that are toxic to mammals Top-down Bottom-up
Lower exposure of pesticides that are toxic to non-target invertebrates Top-down Bottom-up
Lower levels of infected crop debris on soil surface Top-down Bottom-up
Lower losses of pesticides to aquatic environments Top-down Bottom-up
Lower losses of pesticides to terrestrial environments Top-down Bottom-up
Lower losses of spilt fuel from the farmyard Top-down Bottom-up
Lower methane emissions from ruminants Top-down Bottom-up
Lower methane emissions from soil Top-down Bottom-up
Lower nitrous oxide emissions from soil Top-down Bottom-up
Lower nutrient losses to habitats Top-down Bottom-up
Lower pesticide losses from field N/A N/A
Lower pesticide residues on food Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain (prevent/reverse decline in) population of pollinators Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain / improve crop yields Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain / improve food quality Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain / improve livestock productivity Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain vegetative cover on fields Top-down Bottom-up
Maintain/improve countryside access Top-down Bottom-up
Minimise disturbance to wildlife habitats Top-down Bottom-up
Minimise risks to public from livestock Top-down Bottom-up
Minimise the risk posed to human health by certain transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) Top-down Bottom-up
Minimise the transmission of livestock diseases Top-down Bottom-up
Modification of rumen microbial population Top-down Bottom-up
Moorland is protected and maintained Top-down N/A
Natural and semi-natural vegetation is not overgrazed Top-down Bottom-up
Nutrients are not applied/stored in areas where they can be rapidly transported into groundwater Top-down Bottom-up
Oil is not stored in areas where it can be rapidly transported into groundwater Top-down Bottom-up
Pain, injury and disease of livestock is rapidly diagnosed and treated Top-down Bottom-up
Pesticides are not applied/stored in areas where they can be rapidly transported into groundwater Top-down Bottom-up
Pesticides are strongly bound to the soil Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent / reduce the creation of flow pathways Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent livestock with TSEs entering the food chain Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent manure from entering watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent pigs from becoming infected with salmonella Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent plastic crop covers be blown away by wind Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent poultry from becoming infected with salmonella Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent reduced visibility due to smoke Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent silage effluent from entering watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Prevent/reduce the risk of fuel spillages Top-down Bottom-up
Prevention of pain, injury and disease to livestock Top-down Bottom-up
Protect ancient trees in arable fields Top-down Bottom-up
Protect ancient trees in intensively-managed grass fields Top-down Bottom-up
Protect and enhance important habitats that contain natural or semi-natural vegetation Top-down Bottom-up
Protect and maintain traditional farm buildings Top-down Bottom-up
Protect and preserve scheduled monuments Top-down Bottom-up
Protect, manage and maintain Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) Top-down Bottom-up
Provide an attractive landscape Top-down Bottom-up
Provide beneficial management for rare arable plants Top-down Bottom-up
Provide foraging sites for seed-eating birds Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce carbon dioxide emissions from combustion Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce carbon dioxide emissions from soils Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce concentrations of toxic elements within crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce concentrations of toxic elements within forage crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce contamination of forage/feed with pathogens Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce contamination of forage/feed with toxic elements Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce contamination of produce with toxic elements Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce crop damage from phytotoxic elements Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce damage to crops by pests Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce deleterious impacts on livestock Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce demand for water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce direct energy use Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for air conditioning/ventilation in livestock housing Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for drying grain Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for field operations Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for heating livestock buildings Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for lighting Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used for storage of produce Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce energy used to heat greenhouses Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce excess soil phosphorus accumulation Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce fertiliser packaging waste Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce habitat degradation from nutrients Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce habitat degradation from pesticide exposure Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce head blight inoculum Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce indirect energy use Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce leaching losses of nitrogen to water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce leaks and losses from manure stores Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce leaks in irrigation equipment Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce lodging in crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce losses from evaporation Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce losses of faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) to water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce losses of nitrogen fertiliser via surface run-off Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce manure / urine deposition in fields Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce manure production Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce nitrogen fertiliser production Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce nitrogen losses to atmosphere Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce nitrogen mineralisation Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce overflows from livestock water troughs Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce overland flow (by barrier) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce pesticide losses from hard surfaces Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce pesticide packaging waste Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce pesticide spray drift Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce plastic crop cover waste Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce plastic silage wrap/sheet waste Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce residues of veterinary medicines in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce salmonella in slurry and manure on pig farms Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce sediment load in watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce soil compaction Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce soil erosion from arable fields Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce soil organic carbon oxidation on arable land Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce spillages of pesticides Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce synthetic pesticide production Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of manure washed off fields into watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of pesticide in drainage water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of pesticides lost via leaching Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of silage effluent washed off fields into watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic fungicides on food crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic fungicides on non-food crops (incl grass and forage) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic herbicides on food crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic herbicides on non-food crops (incl grass and forage) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic insecticides on food crops Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of synthetic insecticides on non-food crops (incl grass and forage) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the amount of water that is wasted Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the conversion of uric acid to ammonium-N N/A N/A
Reduce the deposition of soil and mud on highways adjacent to fields Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the effect of windspeed on drift Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the incidence of salmonella in pigs Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the incidence of salmonella in poultry Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the incidence of TSEs in livestock Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the spread of injurious plants Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce the spread of non-native invasive plants Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce topsoil saturation (waterlogging) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduce waste when applying crop covers Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced contamination of food with physical contaminants (foreign bodies) Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced contamination of meat products with campylobacter Top-down N/A
Reduced contamination of meat products with Clostridium perfringens Top-down N/A
Reduced contamination of meat products with E. Coli Top-down N/A
Reduced contamination of meat products with salmonella Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced contamination of watercourse with fuel Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced eutrophication Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced excess nitrogen accumulation in arable soils Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced excess nitrogen accumulation in grassland soils Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) in water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of campylobacter in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of Clostridium perfringens in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of E. coli O157 in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of fusarium mycotoxins in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of Listeria monocytogenes in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced incidence of salmonella in food Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced levels of Listeria monocytogenes in dairy products Top-down N/A
Reduced levels of salmonella in eggs Top-down N/A
Reduced microbial contamination in dairy produce N/A N/A
Reduced nitrogen in water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced Ochratoxin A production on cereal grains during storage Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced phosphorus in water Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced poaching by livestock Top-down Bottom-up
Reduced soil erosion from grassland or grazed fields Top-down Bottom-up
Reduction in fossil fuel use Top-down Bottom-up
Remove ammonia from ventilated houses Top-down Bottom-up
Renewable energy sources are produced on farm Top-down Bottom-up
Renewable energy sources are used on farm Top-down Bottom-up
Slow down the breakdown process of urea Top-down Bottom-up
Soil remains aerobic Top-down Bottom-up
Sprayer washings are contained Top-down Bottom-up
Sprayer washings are subject to bioremediation Top-down Bottom-up
Stone faced hedge banks are protected and enhanced Top-down Bottom-up
Stone walls are protected and enhanced Top-down Bottom-up
Stored produce does not come into contact with hazardous foreign bodies Top-down Bottom-up
Stress increases the shedding of salmonella, so should be minimised Top-down Bottom-up
Temperature and atmosphere in livestock housing is suitable for the livestock type Top-down Bottom-up
The condition of public rights of way is improved or maintained Top-down Bottom-up
Trap and prevent pollutants or sediment reaching watercourses Top-down Bottom-up
Use less plastic silage wrap/sheet Top-down Bottom-up
Valuable trees are protected Top-down Bottom-up
Vulnerable river banks protected Top-down Bottom-up
Water is reused / recycled Top-down Bottom-up
Watercourses are protected and maintained Top-down N/A
Wet ditches are protected and maintained Top-down Bottom-up
Woodlands are protected and maintained Top-down Bottom-up
Workers are not subject to discrimination or harassment Top-down Bottom-up
Workers are not subject to physical or mental abuse Top-down Bottom-up
Workers have the freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining Top-down Bottom-up
Working hours are not excessive Top-down Bottom-up

Defra Project IF0131
Assessment of reduction in environmental burdens through targeted measures compared with whole farm approaches in cropping and livestock systems
© AERU, University of Hertfordshire
Friday 30 October 2009