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D-limonene
Last updated: 19/10/2025
(Also known as: dipentene; d-limonene; alpha-limonene; dipenol; orange oil; citrus extract)
GENERAL INFORMATION
Description
A plant derived insect repellant
Examples of veterinary uses
Main veterinary application is for flea and tick control on domestic pets
Examples of species treated
Dogs; Cats
Approval status
VMR 2013/2033 approval status (GB/UK)
Not approved
EU Regulatory approval status
Not approved
Chemical structure
Isomerism
d-limonene is one of two optical isomers of limonene, due to a chiral centre at the carbon adjacent to the double bond in its ring structure. This chirality gives rise to enantiomeric isomerism forming d-limonene (R-limonene) and l-limonene (S-limonene). These enantiomers vary in biological activity, with d-limonene more commonly used in pest control
Chemical formula
C₁₀H₁₆
Canonical SMILES
CC1=CCC(CC1)C(=C)C
Isomeric SMILES
CC1=CC[C@@H](CC1)C(=C)C
International Chemical Identifier key (InChIKey)
XMGQYMWWDOXHJM-JTQLQIEISA-N
International Chemical Identifier (InChI)
InChI=1S/C10H16/c1-8(2)10-6-4-9(3)5-7-10/h4,10H,1,5-7H2,2-3H3
2D structure diagram/image available?
Yes
General status
Veterinary substance type
Insect repellent, Antimicrobial
Metabolite Type
Groundwater; Soil; Surface water
Other bioactivity & uses
Biocide; Slimicide
Substance groups
Plant-derived substance; Aliphatic hydrocarbon
Minimum active substance purity
-
Known relevant impurities
-
Substance origin
Natural
Mode of action
Odourous repellent
Molecular targets
[Epididymal-specific lipocalin-9]
CAS RN
5989-27-5
EC number
227-813-5
CIPAC number
None allocated
US EPA chemical code
-
PubChem CID
-
Therapeutic Class
Antiparasitic products, Insecticides and Repellents: Ectoparasiticides, Insecticides and Repellents
ATCvet Code
QP53AX
Controlled Drug?
No
Regulation 37/2010 MRL Classification
-
Molecular mass
136.23
PIN (Preferred Identification Name)
-
IUPAC name
(R)-4-isopropenyl-1-methylcyclohexene
CAS name
(4R)-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)cyclohexene
Global Governance status: Listed (✓) under
UK Poisons List Order 1972 Rotterdam Convention Montreal Protocol
XNo
The Poisons List Order 1972
XNo
Rotterdam Convention
XNo
Montreal Protocol
Stockholm Convention OSPAR EU Water Framework Directive
XNo
Stockholm Convention
✓ (Section B)Yes (Section B)
OSPAR
XNo
EU Water Framework Directive
Relevant Environmental Water Quality Standards
-
Forever chemical
-
Other status information
FEMA=2633; FLAVIS=01.045; Marine pollutant
Physical state
Colourless to pale yellow liquid with citrus odour
Related substances & organisms
Can be a metabolite of:
Parent
Formation medium
Estimated maximum occurrence fraction
1107/2009 relevancy
orange oil Soil - -
Commercial
Property
Value
Availability status
Current
Introduction & key dates
1958, registered USA
Example manufacturers & suppliers of products using this active now or historically
  • Bma Inc, USA
  • Orange Guard Inc
  • BASF Speciality Chemicals
Example products using this active
  • Natural Mosquito and Bug Repellant
  • Orange Guard
  • MotherEarth ProCitra-DL
Formulation and application details
Usually suppled as ready-to-use formulations such as sprays and as emulsifiable concentrates, granules and impregnated collars
Commercial production
d-Limonene is primarily produced commercially through the extraction from citrus fruit peels, especially oranges. The peels of citrus fruits are subjected to a process called cold pressing or steam distillation to extract the essential oils, which contain d-limonene. The essential oil is then separated from the water and other components, typically using centrifugation or decantation. The crude d-limonene is further purified to remove any impurities. This can involve additional distillation or filtration steps to achieve the desired purity level. Alternatively, a process using supercritical carbon dioxide can be used to extract the essential oil from citrus peel. There is also growing interest in microbial production of d-limonene which involves using genetically engineered microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to produce d-limonene through fermentation processes.
Impact on climate of production and use
According to a published LCA the production of d-limonene from citrus waste emits approximately 0.3 to 0.5 tonnes of CO₂e per tonne of d-limonene produced. This is significantly lower than petroleum-derived solvents like acetone or toluene, which can emit 2–5 tonnes CO₂e per tonne.
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Solubility - In water at 20 °C at pH 7 (mg l⁻¹)
13.8
V3 V = ChemID Online Databases; Chemspider; PubChem. (ChemID )
3 = Unverified data of known source
at 25 °C		 Moderate
Solubility - In organic solvents at 20 °C (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Melting point (°C)
-73.5
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
Boiling point (°C)
175
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
Degradation point (°C)
- - -
Flashpoint (°C)
45
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
 -
Octanol-water partition coefficient at pH 7, 20 °C
P
1.70 X 1004 Calculated -
Log P
4.23
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 High
Fat solubility of residues
Solubility
- - -
Data type
- - -
Density (g ml⁻¹)
1
Q2 Q = Miscellaneous data from online sources
2 = Unverified data of unknown source
 -
Dissociation constant pKa) at 25 °C
- - -
-
Vapour pressure at 20 °C (mPa)
160000
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 Highly volatile. If applied directly to plants or soil, drift is a concern & mitigation is advisable
Henry's law constant at 25 °C (Pa m³ mol⁻¹)
1580
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 Volatile
Volatilisation as max % of applied dose lost
From plant surface
- - -
From soil surface
- - -
Maximum UV-vis absorption L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹
- - -
Surface tension (mN m⁻¹)
28.5
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
Refractive Index
- - -
Environmental release
-
Degradation
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Soil degradation (days) (aerobic)
DT₅₀ (typical)
- - -
DT₅₀ (lab at 20 °C)
- - -
DT₅₀ (field)
- - -
DT₉₀ (lab at 20 °C)
- - -
DT₉₀ (field)
- - -
Note
-
Manure DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Aqueous photolysis DT₅₀ (days) at pH 7
Value
- - -
Note
-
Aqueous hydrolysis DT₅₀ (days) at 20 °C and pH 7
Value
- - -
Note
-
Water-sediment DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Water phase only DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Sediment phase only DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Air degradation
As this parameter is not normally measured directly, a surrogate measure is used: ‘Photochemical oxidative DT₅₀’. Where data is available, this can be found in the Fate Indices section below.
Decay in stored produce DT₅₀
-
Soil adsorption and mobility
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Linear
Kd (mL g⁻¹)
- - -
Koc (mL g⁻¹)
-
Notes and range
-
Freundlich
Kf (mL g⁻¹)
- - -
Kfoc (mL g⁻¹)
-
1/n
-
Notes and range
-
pH sensitivity
-
Fate indices
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
GUS leaching potential index
- - -
Bio-concentration factor
BCF (l kg⁻¹)
246
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 Threshold for concern
CT₅₀ (days)
Not available -
Known metabolites

None

ECOTOXICOLOGY
Terrestrial ecotoxicology
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
> 5000
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Rat		 Low
Mammals - Short Term Oral NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Mammals - Long Term (Chronic) Oral NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Birds - Acute LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Birds - Short term dietary LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
> 1405
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Colinus virginianus		 -
Birds - Chronic 21d NOEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Earthworms - Acute 14 day LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹ dw soil)
999.7
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
as product corr		 Moderate
Earthworms - Chronic NOEC, reproduction (mg kg⁻¹ dw soil)
- - -
Soil micro-organisms
- - -
Collembola
Acute LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Chronic NOEC (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Non-target plants
Vegetative vigour ER₅₀ (g ha⁻¹)
- - -
Seedling emergence ER₅₀ (g ha⁻¹)
- - -
Honeybees (Apis spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
> 100
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
as product		 Low
Unknown mode acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Chronic
- - -
Notes
-
Bumblebees (Bombus spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
-
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
-
Mason bees (Osmia spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Other bee species (1)
Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)
- - -
Mode of exposure
-
Other bee species (2)
Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)
- - -
Mode of exposure
-
Beneficial insects (Ladybirds)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Lacewings)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Parasitic wasps) as Mortality LR₅₀ g ha⁻¹, Std lab test
~ 96
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Aphidius rhopalosiphi		 Moderate
Beneficial insects (Predatory mites) as Mortality LR₅₀ g ha⁻¹, Std lab test
~ 175
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Typhlodromus pyri		 Low
Beneficial insects (Ground beetles)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Butterflies)
Contact
- - -
Notes
-
Oral
- - -
Notes
-
Aquatic ecotoxicology
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Temperate Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.702
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Pimephales promelas		 Moderate
Temperate Freshwater Fish - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Tropical Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.421
A3 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Daphnia magna		 Moderate
Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Tropical Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Aquatic crustaceans - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Sediment dwelling organisms - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, static, water (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, sediment (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Aquatic Plants (free-floating, fonds growth, fresh) - 7 day (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Aquatic plants (rooted, growth rate, fresh) - 14 day (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Algae - Acute (growth rate, fresh; mg l⁻¹) (72 hr ErC₅₀, Static)
4.08
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Desmodesmus subspicatus		 Moderate
Algae - Chronic (growth rate, fresh; mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Mesocosm study data
NOEAEC mg l⁻¹
- - -
NOEAEC mg l⁻¹
- - -
Marine bivalves
- - -
HUMAN HEALTH AND PROTECTION
General
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Threshold of Toxicological Concern (Cramer Class)
Low (class I) - -
Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
> 5000
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Rat		 Low
Mammals - Short Term Oral NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Mammals - Long Term (Chronic) Oral NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Mammals - Dermal LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹ body weight)
> 2000
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Rat		 -
Mammals - Inhalation LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Other Mammal toxicity endpoints
- - -
ADI - Acceptable Daily Intake (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
None allocated
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
ARfD - Acute Reference Dose (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
None allocated
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
AAOEL - Acute Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
- - -
AOEL - Acceptable Operator Exposure Level - Systemic (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
None allocated
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
Dermal penetration studies (%)
85
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
 -
Dangerous Substances Directive 76/464
- - -
Exposure Routes
Public
Acceptable for proposed uses
Occupational
Acceptable for proposed uses
Mammalian dose elimination route and rate
Rapidly excreted (2-3 days) majority in urine & less than 10% in faeces
Q3 Q = Miscellaneous data from online sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
 -
Health issues
Specific human health issues (hazard-based)
Carcinogen
Genotoxic
Endocrine disruptor
XNo, known not to cause a problem
A3 A = Chromosome aberration (EFSA database)
3 = Negative
;
B3 B = DNA damage/repair (EFSA database)
3 = Negative
;
C3 C = Gene mutation (EFSA database)
3 = Negative
;
D0 D = Genome mutation (EFSA database)
0 = No data
;
E3 E = Unspecified genotoxicity type (miscellaneous data source)
3 = Negative
XNo, known not to cause a problem
Reproduction / development effects Acetyl cholinesterase inhibitor Neurotoxicant
?Possibly, status not identified
XNo, known not to cause a problem
 No data found
Respiratory tract irritant Skin irritant Skin sensitiser
?Possibly, status not identified
✓Yes, known to cause a problem
✓Yes, known to cause a problem
Eye irritant Phototoxicant  
✓Yes, known to cause a problem
 No data found  
General human health issues
No further information available
Handling issues
Property
Value and interpretation
General
Flammable
Not explosive or oxidising
CLP classification 2013
Health: H317
WHO Classification
Not listed (Not listed)
UN Number
-
Waste disposal & packaging
-
Shelf-life, storage, stability and reactivity
-
TRANSLATIONS
Language
Name
English
d-limonene
French
D-limonene
German
D-Limonen
Danish
D-limonen
Italian
D-limonene
Spanish
D-limonene
Greek
-
Polish
D-limonen
Swedish
-
Hungarian
-
Dutch
dipenteen
Norwegian
-
Record last updated: 19/10/2025
Contact: aeru@herts.ac.uk
Please cite as: Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D. and Green, A. (2016) An international database for pesticide risk assessments and management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(4), 1050-1064. DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2015.1133242

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