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Endosulfan (Ref: OMS 570)
Last updated: 24/02/2024
(Also known as: thiodan; benzoepin; FMC 5462; ENT 23979; thiosulfan)

SUMMARY
Endosulfan is an insecticide and acaricide. It has a low aqueous solubility and is volatile. Based on its chemical properties it may have a tendency to leach to groundwater. Endosulfan is moderately persistent in soil but does not tend to persist in water systems. It is highly toxic to mammals, a neurotoxin and possibly a mutagen. It is moderately toxic to birds, honeybees and earthworms but slightly more toxic to aquatic organisms.
Data alerts

The following alerts are based on the data in the tables below. An absence of an alert does not imply the substance has no implications for human health, biodiversity or the environment but just that we do not have the data to form a judgement.

Environmental fate Ecotoxicity Human health
Environmental fate
High alert:
GUS: High leachability
Ecotoxicity
High alert:
Fish acute ecotoxicity: High; Fish chronic ecotoxicity: High
Human health
High alert:
Mammals acute toxicity: High; Genotoxic; Endocrine disrupter; Reproduction/development effects; Neurotoxicant
GENERAL INFORMATION
Description
An isomer mixture of alpha- and beta-endosulfan which is an insecticide and acaricide used to control sucking, chewing and boring insects
Example pests controlled
Whiteflies; Aphids; Leafhoppers; Colorado beetle; Cabbage worms; Ticks; Mites; Tstetse flies.
Example applications
Vegetable crops; Cotton; Potatoes; Tomatoes; Apples
Efficacy & activity
-
Availability status
Current
Introduction & key dates
circa 1956, introduced
UK regulatory status
UK COPR regulatory status
Not approved
Date COPR inclusion expires
Expired
UK LERAP status
No UK approval for use
EC Regulation 1107/2009 (repealing 91/414)
EC Regulation 1107/2009 status
Not approved
Dossier rapporteur/co-rapporteur
Spain
Date EC 1107/2009 inclusion expires
Expired
EU Candidate for substitution (CfS)
Not applicable
Listed in EU database
Yes
Approved for use (✓) under EC 1107/2009 in the following EU Member States
ATAustria
BEBelgium
BGBulgaria
CYCyprus
CZCzech Republic
DEGermany
DKDenmark
EEEstonia
ELGreece
                 
ESSpain
FIFinland
FRFrance
HRCroatia
HUHungary
IEIreland
ITItaly
LTLithuania
LULuxembourg
                 
LVLatvia
MTMalta
NLNetherlands
PLPoland
PTPortugal
RORomania
SESweden
SISlovenia
SKSlovakia
                 
Approved for use (✓) under EC 1107/2009 by Mutual Recognition of Authorisation and/or national regulations in the following EEA countries
ISIceland
NONorway
                 
Additional information
Also used in
Australia, USA
Chemical structure
Isomerism
A molecule with 4 chiral centres, endosulfan is is a mixture of the alpha- and beta-forms.The alpha isomer is considerably more toxic than the beta isomer.
Chemical formula
C₉H₆Cl₆O₃S
Canonical SMILES
C1C2C(COS(=O)O1)C3(C(=C(C2(C3(Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl
Isomeric SMILES
C1[C@@H]2[C@H](COS(=O)O1)[C@@]3(C(=C([C@]2(C3(Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl
International Chemical Identifier key (InChIKey)
RDYMFSUJUZBWLH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
International Chemical Identifier (InChI)
InChI=1S/C9H6Cl6O3S/c10-5-6(11)8(13)4-2-18-19(16)17-1-3(4)7(5,12)9(8,14)15/h3-4H,1-2H2
2D structure diagram/image available?
Yes
Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre diagrams
Common Name Relationship Link
endosulfan sulphate Variant
endosulfan Beta-isomer
General status
Pesticide type
Insecticide, Acaricide
Substance groups
Organochloride insecticide; Organochloride acaricide, Cyclodiene insecticide; Cyclodiene acaricide
Minimum active substance purity
-
Known relevant impurities
-
Substance origin
Synthetic
Mode of action
Non-systemic with contact and stomach action, acts as a non-competitive GABA antagonist
CAS RN
115-29-7
EC number
204-079-4
CIPAC number
89
US EPA chemical code
079401
PubChem CID
3224
CLP index number
602-052-00-5
Molecular mass
406.93
PIN (Preferred Identification Name)
(5aE,6E,9E,9aE)-6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,9a-hexahydro-6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathiepin-3-one
IUPAC name
1,4,5,6,7,7-hexachloro-8,9,10-trinorborn-5-en-2,3-ylenebismethylene sulfite
CAS name
6,7,8,9,10,10-hexachloro-1,5,5a,6,9,9a-hexahydro-6,9-methano-2,4,3-benzodioxathiepin 3-oxide
Other status information
POP chemical; OSPAR pfa/soc; WFD priority substance; Marine Pollutant; Global ban (2011); Subject to PIC regulations; Subject to the provisions of the UK Poisons Act 1972
Relevant Environmental Water Quality Standards
EU Directive 2008/105/EC EQS surface waters: annual average 0.005 µg l⁻¹; max measured 0.01 µg l⁻¹
UK Statutory standard for the protection of aquatic life in inland waters, coastal and territorial waters: 0.003 µg l⁻¹ as annual average
Herbicide Resistance Class (HRAC MoA class)
Not applicable
Herbicide Resistance Class (WSSA MoA class)
Not applicable
Insecticide Resistance Class (IRAC MoA class)
2A
Fungicide Resistance Class (FRAC MOA class)
Not applicable
Examples of recorded resistance
Many recorded cases, Aphis gossypii, Bemisia tabaci, Dasineura tetensi, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Myzus persicae, many others
Physical state
Colourless to brown coloured crystals
Formulations
Property
Value
Example manufacturers & suppliers of products using this active now or historically
  • Bayer CropScience
  • Hoechst
  • FMC
  • Velsicol
  • Makhteshim-Agan
Example products using this active
  • Thiodan
  • Benzoepin
Formulation and application details
Supplied in a variety of formulations including emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, granules and dusts
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Solubility - In water at 20 °C (mg l⁻¹)
0.32
H4 H = The US ARS pesticide properties database. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Low
Solubility - In organic solvents at 20 °C (mg l⁻¹)
200000
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Ethyl acetate
-
65000
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Ethanol
-
24000
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Hexane
-
200000
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Toluene
-
Melting point (°C)
80
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
-
Boiling point (°C)
- - -
Degradation point (°C)
- - -
Flashpoint (°C)
- - -
Octanol-water partition coefficient at pH 7, 20 °C
P
5.62 X 1004 Calculated -
Log P
4.75
E4 E = Manufacturers safety data sheets
4 = Verified data
High
Fat solubility of residues
Solubility
Soluble
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
-
Data type
Regulatory data - observed in metabolism and farm animal feeding studies
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
-
Density (g ml⁻¹)
1.8
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
-
Dissociation constant pKa) at 25 °C
- - -
-
Vapour pressure at 20 °C (mPa)
0.83
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Low volatility. If applied directly to plants, drift is a concern & mitigation is advisable
Henry's law constant at 25 °C (Pa m³ mol⁻¹)
1.48
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Moderately volatile
Volatilisation as max % of applied dose lost
From plant surface
- - -
From soil surface
- - -
Maximum UV-vis absorption L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹
- - -
Surface tension (mN m⁻¹)
- - -
Degradation
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
General biodegradability
-
Soil degradation (days) (aerobic)
DT₅₀ (typical)
50
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Moderately persistent
DT₅₀ (lab at 20 °C)
39
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Moderately persistent
DT₅₀ (field)
86
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
Moderately persistent
DT₉₀ (lab at 20 °C)
- - -
DT₉₀ (field)
- - -
DT₅₀ modelling endpoint
- - -
Note
EU dossier lab studies DT₅₀ range 28-50 days, field studies DT₅₀ range 62-126 days for summer applications, 68-87 days for autumn applications (UK); FAO state DT₅₀ 60-800 days
Dissipation rate RL₅₀ (days) on plant matrix
Value
3.7
R4 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
4 = Verified data
-
Note
Published literature RL₅₀ range 0.1-5.5 days, 19 field crops, various matrices, n=23
Dissipation rate RL₅₀ (days) on and in plant matrix
Value
4.3
R4 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
4 = Verified data
-
Note
Published literature RL₅₀ range 0.4-14.5 days, 19 field & undercover grown crops, various matrices, n=41
Aqueous photolysis DT₅₀ (days) at pH 7
Value
- - -
Note
-
Aqueous hydrolysis DT₅₀ (days) at 20 °C and pH 7
Value
20
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Non-persistent
Note
-
Water-sediment DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Water phase only DT₅₀ (days)
- - -
Air degradation
As this parameter is not normally measured directly, a surrogate measure is used: ‘Photochemical oxidative DT₅₀’. Where data is available, this can be found in the Fate Indices section below.
Soil adsorption and mobility
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Linear
Kd
-
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Non-mobile
Koc
11500
Notes and range
-
Freundlich
Kf
0.28
R3 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
3 = Unverified data of known source
Mobile
Kfoc
18.6
1/n
0.558
Notes and range
Literature data Kf range 0.08-0.52 mL g⁻¹, Kfoc range 5.7-38.5 mL g⁻¹, 1/n range 0.500-0.648, soils=4
pH sensitivity
-
Fate indices
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
GUS leaching potential index
5.28 Calculated High leachability
SCI-GROW groundwater index (μg l⁻¹) for a 1 kg ha⁻¹ or 1 l ha⁻¹ application rate
Value
5.86 X 1000 Calculated -
Note
-
Potential for particle bound transport index
Medium Calculated -
Potential for loss via drain flow
Non-mobile Calculated -
Photochemical oxidative DT₅₀ (hrs) as indicator of long-range air transport risk
- - -
Bio-concentration factor
BCF (l kg⁻¹)
2755
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Whole fish (Literature values log BCF range 1.0-3.7 (R3))
Threshold for concern
CT₅₀ (days)
Not available -
Known soil metabolites
Metabolite
Major/Minor fraction
Estimated maximum occurrence fraction
Notes
endosulfan sulfate
- - -
endosulfan lactone
Minor fraction - CAS no: 3868-61-9
Known groundwater metabolites

None

Other known metabolites
Metabolite name and reference
Aliases
Formation medium / Rate
Estimated maximum occurrence fraction
Metabolising enzymes
endosulfan sulfate - Human kidney; Rat - -
endosulfan lactone - Human kidney; Rat - -
endosulfan-diol - Human kidney; Rat - -
alpha-hydroxyendosulfan ether - Animal - -
ECOTOXICOLOGY
Terrestrial ecotoxicology
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
38
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Rat
High
Mammals - Short term dietary NOEL
(mg kg⁻¹)
-
L2 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
2 = Unverified data of unknown source
Rat 2 yr
-
(ppm diet)
15 -
Mammals - Chronic 21d NOAEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Birds - Acute LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
> 111
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Anas platyrhynchos
Moderate
Birds - Short term dietary (LC₅₀/LD₅₀)
- - -
Birds - Chronic 21d NOEL (mg kg⁻¹ bw d⁻¹)
- - -
Earthworms - Acute 14 day LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
> 14
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Eisenia foetida
Moderate
Earthworms - Chronic NOEC, reproduction (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Soil micro-organisms
- - -
Collembola
Acute LC₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Chronic NOEC (mg kg⁻¹)
- - -
Non-target plants
- - -
- - -
Honeybees (Apis spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
> 7.81
C4 C = AGRITOX dataset. Dataset is no longer available.
4 = Verified data
Apis mellifera
Moderate
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
> 15.6
F3 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Apis mellifera 24 hr
Moderate
Unknown mode acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Chronic
- - -
Bumblebees (Bombus spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
-
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
> 1.72
R4 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
4 = Verified data
Bombus terrestris
Moderate
-
Mason bees (Osmia spp.)
Contact acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Oral acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg bee⁻¹)
- - -
Other bee species (1)
Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)
0.210
R4 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
4 = Verified data
Trigona spinipes
High
Mode of exposure
Contact
Other bee species (2)
Acute LD₅₀ (worst case from 24, 48 and 72 hour values - μg insect⁻¹)
- - -
Mode of exposure
-
Beneficial insects (Ladybirds)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Lacewings)
Harmless
AA2 AA = IOBC Database on classification of side effects to beneficial organisms, 2005
2 = Unverified data of unknown source
Chrysoperla carnea
-
Beneficial insects (Parasitic wasps)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Predatory mites)
- - -
Beneficial insects (Ground beetles)
- - -
Aquatic ecotoxicology
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Temperate Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.002
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Oncorhynchus mykiss
High
Temperate Freshwater Fish - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)
0.0000005
P4 P = Other non-EU, UK or US Governments and Regulators
4 = Verified data
Cyprinodon variegatus 28 day
High
Tropical Freshwater Fish - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
> 0.0013
F3 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Danio rerio
High
Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.44
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Daphnia magna
Moderate
Temperate Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Chronic 21 day NOEC (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Tropical Freshwater Aquatic invertebrates - Acute 48 hour EC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
> 0.03
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Ceriodaphnia dubia
High
Aquatic crustaceans - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.24
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Americamysis bahia
Moderate
Sediment dwelling organisms - Acute 96 hour LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.1
F3 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
3 = Unverified data of known source
Chironomus riparius 2 day
Moderate
Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, static, water (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Sediment dwelling organisms - Chronic 28 day NOEC, sediment (mg kg⁻¹)
5.22
R3 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
3 = Unverified data of known source
Chironomus dilutus 10 day LC₅₀
Moderate
Aquatic plants - Acute 7 day EC₅₀, biomass (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Algae - Acute 72 hour EC₅₀, growth (mg l⁻¹)
2.15
F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment )
4 = Verified data
Anabaena doliolum
Moderate
Algae - Chronic 96 hour NOEC, growth (mg l⁻¹)
- - -
Mesocosm study data
NOEAEC mg l⁻¹
- - -
NOEAEC mg l⁻¹
- - -
HUMAN HEALTH AND PROTECTION
General
Property
Value
Source; quality score; and other information
Interpretation
Threshold of Toxicological Concern (Cramer Class)
High (class III) - -
Mammals - Acute oral LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹)
38
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Rat
High
Mammals - Dermal LD₅₀ (mg kg⁻¹ body weight)
500
R3 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
3 = Unverified data of known source
Rat
-
Mammals - Inhalation LC₅₀ (mg l⁻¹)
0.013
L3 L = Pesticide manuals and hard copy reference books / other sources
3 = Unverified data of known source
Rat
-
Other Mammal toxicity endpoints
- - -
ADI - Acceptable Daily Intake (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
0.006
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
-
ARfD - Acute Reference Dose (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
0.02
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications )
5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes
-
AAOEL - Acute Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
- - -
AOEL - Acceptable Operator Exposure Level - Systemic (mg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹)
- - -
Dermal penetration studies (%)
- - -
Dangerous Substances Directive 76/464
List II - -
Exposure Routes
Public
-
Occupational
-
MRLs
European
EU MRL pesticide database 
Great Britain
GB MRL Register 
Notes
-
Drinking Water Standards
- - -
Drinking Water MAC (μg l⁻¹)
- - -
Mammalian dose elimination route and rate
Excretion rapid as metabolites
R4 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications
4 = Verified data
-
Health issues
Specific human health issues
Carcinogen
Genotoxic
Endocrine disruptor
XNo, known not to cause a problem
A3 A = Chromosome aberration (EFSA database)
3 = Negative
;
B0 B = DNA damage/repair (EFSA database)
0 = No data
;
C0 C = Gene mutation (EFSA database)
0 = No data
;
D0 D = Genome mutation (EFSA database)
0 = No data
;
E1 E = Unspecified genotoxicity type (miscellaneous data source)
1 = Positive
Yes, known to cause a problem
Reproduction / development effects Acetyl cholinesterase inhibitor Neurotoxicant
Yes, known to cause a problem
XNo, known not to cause a problem
Yes, known to cause a problem
Respiratory tract irritant Skin irritant Skin sensitiser
No data found No data found No data found
Eye irritant Phototoxicant  
No data found No data found  
General human health issues
Mutagenic potential
Highly toxic
Research shows that endosulfan interferes with the spermatogenic & steroidogenic cycles in rats
Endocrine issues - Competitive binding to androgen receptors
Handling issues
Property
Value and interpretation
General
Corrosive
IMDG Transport Hazard Class 6.1
CLP classification 2013
Health: H300, H312, H330
Environment: H400, H410
WHO Classification
II (Moderately hazardous)
UN Number
UN2811
Waste disposal & packaging
Packaging Group II (moderate danger)
Shelf-life, storage, stability and reactivity
Chemically stable under standard ambient conditions
TRANSLATIONS
Language
Name
English
endosulfan
French
endosulfan
German
Endosulfan
Danish
endosulfan
Italian
endosulfan
Spanish
endosulfan
Greek
endosulphan
Polish
endosulfan
Swedish
-
Hungarian
endoszulfan
Dutch
endosulfan
Norwegian
-

Record last updated: 24/02/2024
Contact: aeru@herts.ac.uk
Please cite as: Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D. and Green, A. (2016) An international database for pesticide risk assessments and management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(4), 1050-1064. DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2015.1133242