Pesticides and crop protection

The use of chemicals (pesticides) for crop protection and animal health (veterinary medicines and treatments) are key components in agricultural production systems. The use of these substances inherently presents risks to the wider environment directly and indirectly and so it is important to understand the risks posed and develop strategies to minimise any potential impacts. AERU have an extensive track record undertaking research into pesticides, their use, potential impacts and the development of tools for knowledge transfer and for supporting regulatory risk assessments. This includes the creation and management of the Pesticide Properties Database (PPDB) – a world leading database used extensively by users around the world.

Projects

• 2021-2021: Development of a catchment pesticide guide (ARW/2020/06)
• 2010-2020: Urban weed control
• 2016-2017: Review of published data on exposure to pesticides for residents and bystanders
• 2006-Ongoing: Pesticide, biopesticide and veterinary substances databases
• 2006-2010: Functional Tools for Pesticide Risk Assessment & Management in Europe (FOOTPRINT)
• 1998-2021: Development of pesticide load indicators
• 1994-2017: Environmental Management for Agriculture

Publications

• Warner, D.J., Davies, M., Hipps, N., Tzilivakis, J., Lewis, K.A. and Fountain, M. (2026) Integrated weed management reduces the environmental impact of urban amenity weed control. Weed Science. In press.
• Tzilivakis, J., Lewis, K.A., Kennedy, M.C., Ridley, L. & Garthwaite, D.G. (2026). The UK pesticide load indicator: development toward a policy tool. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: 1-18. [DOI].
• Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2025). Pesticide environmental indicators and the need to minimise uncertainty. environmental SCIENTIST, 35.2: 68-75. [Download].
• Kennedy, M., Garthwaite, D., Ridley, L. & Tzilivakis, J. (2024). UK Pesticide Load Indicator. Phase 5 Update Report. Prepared for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) for Project PC0122, by FERA Science Ltd and the Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU), University of Hertfordshire, UK. [Download].
• Rainford, J, Tzilivakis, J., Garthwaite, D., Jones, G. & Lewis, K.A. (2023). Finalising a Pesticide Load Indicator for the UK: Phase 4 Report. Prepared for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), UK, for project PC0116, by FERA Science Ltd and the Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU), University of Hertfordshire, UK. [Download].
• Lewis, K., Rainford, J., Tzilivakis, J., & Garthwaite, D. (2021). Application of the Danish Pesticide Load Indicator to UK arable agriculture. J Environ Qual.: 1-13. DOI.
• Rainford, J., Tzilivakis, J., Garthwaite, D., Jones, G. & Lewis, K. (2021). Developing a UK Pesticide Load Indicator: Phase 2 Final Report. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), London.
• Rainford, J., Garthwaite, D., Jones, G., Tzilivakis, J. and Lewis, K.A. (2020) Developing a UK Pesticide Load Indicator. Final report for a scoping project undertaken for Defra by FERA Science Limited and the Agriculture & Environment Research Unit at the University of Hertfordshire.
• Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2019). Wild bee toxicity data for pesticide risk assessments. Data, 4(3): 98. DOI
• Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D.J. & Green, A. (2018). Agri-environmental Management in Europe: Sustainable Challenges and Solutions - From Policy Interventions to Practical Farm Management. 5m Publishing, Sheffield, UK. ISBN: 1912178443
• Warner, D., Tzilivakis, J., Green, A. and Lewis, K. (2017) Environmental impact assessment of sugar beet and sugar cane grown in the United States. Confidential report to Western Sugar Ltd
• Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2017). Review of the published exposure data to pesticides for residents and bystanders, and for environmental risk assessment: Final report. EFSA supporting publication 2017:EN-1204, 101 pp. DOI
• Lewis, K. & Tzilivakis, J. (2017). Development of a data set of pesticide dissipation rates in/on various plant matrices for the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB). Data, 2(3), 28. DOI
• Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D. & Green, A. (2016). An international database for pesticide risk assessments and management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(4): 1050-1064. DOI
• AECOM, AERU, RAC & LFAP (2016) Payments for ecosystems services trial in the Loddon catchment. Phase 2 report for Affinity Water, prepared by AECOM, Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU) at the University of Hertfordshire, Reading Agricultural Consultants (RAC) and the Loddon Farm Advice Project (LFAP)
• AECOM, AERU, RAC & LFAP (2015) Payments for ecosystems services trial in the Loddon catchment. Phase 1 report for Affinity Water, prepared by AECOM, Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU) at the University of Hertfordshire, Reading Agricultural Consultants (RAC) and the Loddon Farm Advice Project (LFAP)
• Fountain, M., Davies, M., Mounter, D., Hookey, J., Mason, A., Lewis, K.A. and Warner, D.J. (2015) Development of zero and minimal herbicide regimes for controlling weeds on hard surfaces and determining their emissions. Final report for project PS2802. Defra, London.
• Fountain, M., Davies, M., Mounter, D., Hookey, J., Mason, A., Lewis, K.A. and Warner, D.J. (2015) Best Practice Guidance Notes for Integrated and Non-chemical Amenity Hard Surface Weed Control.
• Fountain, M., Hookey, J., Mounter, D. & Warner, D.J. (2014). Development of zero and minimal herbicide regimes for controlling weeds on hard surfaces and determining their emissions and effectiveness and comparisons with more traditional approaches. Towards Developing Guidance Notes for Integrated Approaches to Amenity Weed Control. 11 February 2014 University of Hertfordshire and 25 February 2014, University of Lancaster
• Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2013). The Waitrose Pesticide Load Indicator. Waitrose Annual Technical Conference for the Fresh Produce Supply base, 13 November 2013.
• Warner, D.J. (2013). Development of low/no herbicide regimes for amenity weed control. Waitrose Technical Conference, Waitrose, Allington, Kent, 12th November 2013.
• Lewis, K. & Green, A. (2011). The Pesticide Properties DataBase. Chemistry International, 33(3): 30-31.
• Dubus, I., Azimonti, G., Bach, M., Barriuso, E., Bidoglio, G., Bouraoui, F., Centofanti, T., Coquet, Y., Feisel, B., Fialkiewicz, W., Fowler, H., Galimberti, F., Grizzetti, B., Højberg, A., Hollis, J., Jarvis, N., Kajewski, I., Kjær, J., Krasnicki, S., Lewis, K., Lobnik, F., Lolos, P., Moeys, J., Nolan, T., Rasmussen, P., Réal, B., Reichenberger, S., Šinkovec, M., Stenemo, F., Suhadolic, M., Surdyk, N., Tzilivakis, J., Vaudour, T., Avoulidou-Theodorou, E., Windhorst, E. & Wurm, D. (2009). The FOOTPRINT Software Tools: Pesticide Risk Assessment and Management in the EU at different spatial scales. Presented at CEMEPE & SECOTOX June 2009, Mykonos, Greece.
• Lewis, K.A. (2009). FOOTPRINT Pesticide Properties Database: why and how it was developed and its future role in environmental risk assessments. Invited paper presented at 238th American Chemical Society National Meeting, Washington DC, August 16-20th 2009.
• Tzilivakis, J., Green, A. & Lewis, K.A. (2009). The FOOT-FS software system: An overview. Presented at the FOOTPRINT Final Conference, Giessen, Germany, 18-19 March 2009.
• Green, A., Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2009). Pesticide Properties Database: An overview. Presented at the FOOTPRINT Final Conference, Giessen, Germany, 18-19 March 2009.
• Lewis, K.A., Green, A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2009). Pesticide Properties Database: Usage and Uptake. Presented at the FOOTPRINT Final Conference, Giessen, Germany, 18-19 March 2009.
• Lewis, K.A., Green, A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2009). The Pesticide Properties DataBase: Beyond FOOTPRINT. Presented at the FOOTPRINT Final Conference, Giessen, Germany, 18-19 March 2009.
• Lewis, K., Green A. & Tzilivakis J. (2007). A Pesticide database holding fate and ecological values. Report DL24 of the FP6 EU-funded FOOTPRINT project, 28p.
• Tzilivakis, J. & Lewis, K.A. (2007). The Beta version of FOOT-FS. Report DL26 of the FP6 EU-funded FOOTPRINT project, 28p.
• Lewis, K., Green, A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2007). Development of an improved pesticide properties database for risk assessment applications. EFITA/WCCA Conference Glasgow, July 2007.
• Green, A., Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J. Dubus, I.G. & Coles, A. (2007). FOOTPRINT - Creating tools for Pesticide Risk Assessment and Management in Europe. Poster presented at Voluntary Initiative Meeting, SCI York.
• Dubus, I., Azimonti, G., Bach, M., Barriuso, E., Bidoglio, G., Bouraoui, F., Fialkiewicz, W., Fowler, H., François, O., Højberg, A., Hollis, J., Jarvis, N., Kajewski, I., Kjær, J., Lewis, K., Lobnik, F., Lolos, P., Réal, B., Reichenberger, S., Stenemo, F., Suhadolc, M. & Vavoulidou-Theodorou. E. (2006). Developing functional tools for pesticide risk assessment and management at various scales in Europe: the EU project FOOTPRINT. SCI Conference. Pesticide Behaviour in Soils, Water and Air. Warwick.
• Tzilivakis, J., Turley, D.B., Ogilvy, S.E., Lewis, K.A. & Lawson, K. (2004). Assessing the environmental impact of crop protection strategies for integrated farming systems. Agronomie 24, 67-76.
• Brown, C.D., Hart, A., Lewis, K.A. & Dubus, I.G. (2003). p-EMA (I): simulating the environmental fate of pesticides for a farm-level risk assessment system. Agronomie 23, 67-74.
• Hart, A., Brown, C.D., Lewis, K.A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2003). p-EMA (II): evaluating ecological risks of pesticides for a farm-level risk assessment system. Agronomie 23, 75-84.
• Lewis, K.A., Brown, C.D., Hart, A. & Tzilivakis, J. (2003). p-EMA (III): overview and application of a software system designed to assess the environmental risk of agricultural pesticides. Agronomie 23, 85-96.
• Reus, J., Leendertse, P., Bockstaller, C., Fomsgaard, I., Gutsche, V., Lewis, K., Nilsson, C., Pussemier, L.,Trevisan, M., Van der Werf, H., Alfarroba, F., Blümel, S., Isart, J., McGrath, D. & Seppälä, T. (2002). Comparison and evaluation of eight pesticide environmental risk indicators developed in Europe and recommendations for future use. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90, 177–187.
• Lewis, K.A. (1999). Pesticide environmental performance indicators - pesticide assessment with the EMA II package (Environmental Management for Agriculture) presented at the CAPER conference 18-20 March 1999, Amsterdam, The Netherlands and published in the CAPER Final report by CLM March 1999.
• Lewis, K.A., Newbold, M.J. & Thomas, M.R. (1998). Pesticide policies, practices and initiatives - can the UK's know-how be transferred to Chile? International Conference on Pesticide use in Developing Countries: Impact on health and the environment, Costa Rica February 1998.
• Lewis, K.A. Newbold, M.J. & Broom, C.E. (1997). An eco-rating system for optimising pesticide use at farm level: Part 2 evaluation, examples and piloting. Journal of Agricultural Engineering 68, 281-289.
• Lewis, K.A., Newbold, M.J., Hall, A.M. & Broom, C.E. (1997). An eco-rating system for optimising pesticide use at farm level: Part 1 theory and development. Journal of Agricultural Engineering 68, 275-280.